Environment and Natural Resources – AHSEC Class 12 Political Science Chapter 8

Here is the complete guide for AHSEC Class 12 Political Science (Contemporary World Politics), Chapter 8: “Environment and Natural Resources,” written entirely in English. This includes a chapter summary, all textual questions, previous years’ AHSEC questions, and 10 additional important questions.

Chapter 8: Environment and Natural Resources

Summary of the Chapter

Environmental Concerns in Global Politics:
Since the 1960s, environmental issues have gained increasing political significance. Problems like the depletion of cultivable land, water scarcity, deforestation, ozone layer depletion, and coastal pollution are global challenges that no single government can solve alone. This has brought environmental concerns into the mainstream of world politics. Key milestones include the 1972 Club of Rome’s report “The Limits to Growth” and the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, which firmly established the environment on the global political agenda.

The Protection of Global Commons:
‘Global Commons’ are resources that are not within the sovereign jurisdiction of any one state and therefore require common governance by the international community. Examples include the Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor, and outer space. Protecting these commons is a major challenge requiring international cooperation. Significant agreements in this regard include the Antarctic Treaty (1959), the Montreal Protocol (1987), and the Antarctic Environmental Protocol (1991).

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities:
There is a significant divide between the developed countries (the ‘Global North’) and the developing countries (the ‘Global South’) on environmental issues. The North wants to discuss the environmental issue as it is and wants everyone to share the responsibility for environmental protection equally. The South argues that the North is historically more responsible for environmental degradation due to its long history of industrialisation. Therefore, the North should bear a greater share of the responsibility. This principle is known as ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’ and was accepted in the 1992 Rio Declaration.

Environmental Movements:
Across the world, various environmental movements have emerged, some at the international level but most at the local level. These movements, led by environmentally conscious volunteers, have raised awareness and put pressure on governments. They have protested against issues like deforestation, mining, and the construction of large dams, highlighting the negative impacts of certain development models.

Resource Geopolitics:
Natural resources, particularly oil and water, have always been central to geopolitics. The history of crude oil is a story of war and struggle for control. West Asia, especially the Gulf region, is critical as it accounts for a huge portion of the world’s oil production and reserves. Similarly, water is a critical resource, and disagreements over shared river waters are a major source of conflict between states.

Indigenous Peoples and their Rights:
The issue of indigenous peoples brings together concerns of environment, resources, and politics. Indigenous peoples are descendants of the original inhabitants of a region who were later overcome by people of another culture. They have a deep connection to their land and have faced historical injustices, including loss of territory and political autonomy. Since the 1970s, they have emerged as a collective voice in world politics, demanding the right to their land, resources, and cultural identity.

Textbook Exercise Question Answers

1. Which of the following best explains the reason for growing concerns about the environment?
(c) The environmental degradation caused by human activities has become pervasive and has reached a dangerous level.

2. Mark the following statements as true (✓) or false (✗).
(a) The Earth Summit was attended by 170 states, thousands of NGOs and many multinational corporations. – ✓
(b) The summit was held under the aegis of the UN. – ✓
(c) For the first time, environmental concerns were raised at the global level. – ✗ (Concerns were raised earlier, but this summit gave them political solidity).
(d) This was a summit meeting. – ✓

3. Which of the following statements are true about the global commons?
(a) The Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor and outer space are considered as a part of the global commons. – True
(b) The global commons are outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any one state. – True
(c) The management of the global commons is marked by the North-South divide. – True
(d) The countries of the North are more concerned about the protection of the global commons than the countries of the South. – False

4. What were the outcomes of the Rio Summit?
Answer: The main outcomes of the Rio Summit (Earth Summit) of 1992 were:

• It produced conventions dealing with climate change, biodiversity, and forestry.
• It recommended a list of development practices called ‘Agenda 21’.
• It endorsed the principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’.
• It established the idea of ‘sustainable development’ as a way to combine economic growth with ecological responsibility.

5. What is meant by the ‘global commons’? How are they exploited and polluted?
Answer: ‘Global commons’ are resources that are not owned by any one state but are shared by the international community. They include the Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor, and outer space.
They are exploited and polluted in various ways:

• Atmosphere: Emission of greenhouse gases leading to global warming.
• Ocean Floor: Over-harvesting of fish stocks and dumping of waste, including hazardous materials.
• Antarctica: Depletion of the ozone layer due to CFC emissions.
• Outer Space: Accumulation of space debris from satellite launches.

6. What is meant by ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’? How can we implement this principle?
Answer: ‘Common but differentiated responsibilities’ means that while all states share a common responsibility to protect the global environment, the developed countries (the North) have a greater responsibility because they are historically more responsible for environmental degradation.
We can implement this principle by:

• Developed countries taking the lead in reducing their emissions and providing financial and technological assistance to developing countries.
• Exempting developing countries from certain binding commitments (as was done in the Kyoto Protocol) so that their development process is not hampered.

7. Why have the issues of environment and resource conservation become part of world politics since the 1990s?
Answer: These issues became part of world politics because:

• Global Nature of Problems: It became clear that environmental problems like global warming and ozone depletion could not be solved by any one country alone and required international cooperation.
• Scientific Evidence: Growing scientific consensus on the severity of these threats increased pressure on governments to act.
• Political Salience: The 1992 Rio Earth Summit brought these issues to the forefront of global politics.
• Activism: Environmental movements worldwide raised public awareness and pushed governments to address these concerns.

8. “The states shall cooperate in the spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the earth’s ecosystem. In view of the different contributions of global environmental degradation, states have common but differentiated responsibilities.” Explain the statement in the context of the North-South divide on this issue.
Answer: This statement, from the Rio Declaration, captures the core of the North-South divide on environmental issues.

• The North’s Position: Developed countries emphasize the “common responsibility” part, arguing that all states must take equal measures to protect the environment.
• The South’s Position: Developing countries emphasize the “differentiated responsibilities” part. They argue that the North is historically responsible for the bulk of environmental degradation through its industrialisation. Therefore, the North should bear a greater burden in addressing the problem. The South also argues that its primary priority is economic development and poverty eradication, and it should not be subjected to the same environmental restrictions as the developed North. This principle acknowledges the North’s historical responsibility and the South’s right to develop.

9. The most serious challenge before the states is to pursue economic development without causing further damage to the global environment. How can this be achieved? Give some examples.
Answer: This can be achieved through the path of ‘sustainable development’, which means development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Examples of how this can be achieved include:

• Shift to Renewable Energy: Investing in and promoting solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources instead of fossil fuels. India’s National Solar Mission is an example.
• Energy Efficiency: Adopting technologies and practices that reduce energy consumption in industries, transport, and homes.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Promoting organic farming and reducing the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
• Circular Economy: Designing products and systems where waste is minimised and resources are reused and recycled.
  Achieving this requires significant investment in new technologies, changes in consumption patterns, and strong international cooperation.

10. Read the passage and answer the questions below:
(a) What is the difference between the new social movements and the revolutionary ideologies of the past?
Ans: The new social movements (like environmentalism) tend to be single-issue movements and do not aim for a total transformation of the social system. In contrast, past revolutionary ideologies (like socialism) aimed at a fundamental and complete change of the social and political structure.
(b) What, according to the author, is the limitation of these movements?
Ans: According to the author, the main limitation of these movements is that they are “too fragmented.” They often focus on a single issue and fail to build a sustained, integrated movement for the truly oppressed and poor.
(c) If social movements address specific issues, would you describe them as ‘fragmented’ or as more ‘focused’? Give an example.
Ans: This depends on the context. If a movement addresses only a very narrow issue in isolation, it could be described as fragmented. For example, a movement to save only one specific species of bird. However, if a specific issue, like protesting a dam, is used to raise larger questions about the model of development, displacement, and the environment, it can be described as more focused and effective. The Narmada Bachao Andolan is an example of a focused movement that used a specific project to raise broader issues.

Previous Year AHSEC Exam Question Answers (2015-2024)

Short Questions

• 2015: When and where was the ‘Earth Summit’ held? (2 Marks)
  Ans: In 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
• 2016: Write one cause of environmental degradation. (1 Mark)
  Ans: Deforestation.
• 2017: Give one example of ‘global commons’. (1 Mark)
  Ans: The Earth’s atmosphere.
• 2018: What is the Kyoto Protocol? (2 Marks)
  Ans: The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that sets targets for industrialised countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.
• 2019: What is the meaning of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’? (2 Marks)
  Ans: It means that all states share a common responsibility to protect the environment, but developed countries have a greater responsibility because they are historically more responsible for degradation.
• 2020: When was the World Council of Indigenous Peoples formed? (1 Mark)
  Ans: In 1975.
• 2022: What is ‘Agenda 21’? (2 Marks)
  Ans: ‘Agenda 21’ is a comprehensive plan of action adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit, outlining steps to be taken globally, nationally, and locally to achieve sustainable development.
• 2023: What was the objective of the Montreal Protocol? (2 Marks)
  Ans: Its objective was to phase out the production and consumption of substances that deplete the ozone layer, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• 2024: What is sustainable development? (2 Marks)
  Ans: Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Long Questions

• Question: Discuss the differences in the environmental concerns of the developed and developing countries. (4/6 Marks)
  Ans:
  1. Historical Responsibility: Developing countries (the South) argue that developed countries (the North) are historically responsible for most of the environmental degradation due to their long period of industrialisation. The North is reluctant to accept this historical responsibility.
  2. Development Priorities: The primary concern for developing countries is economic growth and poverty eradication. They feel that environmental restrictions should not hamper their right to develop. Developed countries, having already achieved a high level of development, can afford to prioritise environmental protection.
  3. Technology and Finance: Developing countries argue that developed countries should provide them with financial aid and clean technology to help them pursue sustainable development.
     This difference in perspective is encapsulated in the principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’.
• Question: Write a note on the rights of indigenous peoples. (4/6 Marks)
  Ans: Indigenous peoples are the descendants of the original inhabitants of a region. They have faced historical injustice, including the loss of their lands, culture, and political autonomy due to colonisation and development projects. Since the 1970s, they have organised globally to demand their rights. Their key demands include:
  • Right to Land and Resources: Recognition of their traditional rights over their lands and natural resources.
  • Cultural Identity: The right to preserve and practice their unique cultures, languages, and traditions.
  • Political Self-determination: The right to govern their own affairs and have a say in decisions that affect them.
    The formation of the World Council of Indigenous Peoples in 1975 and the UN’s growing recognition of their issues have helped bring their demands to the global stage.

10 Additional Important Questions and Answers

1. What is the ‘Club of Rome’?
   Ans: The Club of Rome is a global think tank that published the influential report “The Limits to Growth” in 1972.
2. Who published the ‘Our Common Future’ report?
   Ans: The Brundtland Commission published this report in 1987.
3. What is the full form of UNFCCC?
   Ans: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
4. Give an example of an environmental movement.
   Ans: The ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ (Save the Narmada Movement) in India.
5. What is meant by Resource Geopolitics?
   Ans: It refers to the politics of controlling and accessing vital natural resources like oil and water, which often leads to competition and conflict between states.
6. Why is West Asia geopolitically important?
   Ans: Because the region contains the world’s largest crude oil reserves.
7. What are indigenous people in India known as?
   Ans: They are officially referred to as Scheduled Tribes.
8. Where was the 1992 Earth Summit held?
   Ans: In Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
9. What is the main cause of ozone layer depletion?
   Ans: The emission of chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
10. When was the Antarctic Treaty signed?
    Ans: In 1959.