Here is a comprehensive guide to Chapter 8 (A) from the “Swadesh Adhyayan” textbook, created to help you prepare thoroughly for your upcoming AHSEC Class 12 exams. This guide includes a summary, complete textual answers, and other important questions.
Chapter 8 (A):
Crafts and Industries in Assam: Pre-British Age
Summary Note
This chapter details the various cottage industries and crafts that flourished in Assam during the Pre-British Age (from ancient times to 1826 AD). During this era, Assam’s economy was largely self-sufficient, with people producing necessary daily commodities using traditional skills and implements. These industries were mainly cottage-based, as modern capital and technology were not available.
Key crafts and industries discussed are:
- Silk-worm Rearing and Weaving: Assam has been famous for its silk since ancient times, even being called “the land of rearing silk-worm” in the Ramayana. Three main types of silk were produced: Paat (mulberry silk), Muga (golden silk from worms feeding on Chom and Sowaloo trees), and Eri (a warm, rough silk from worms feeding on Era leaves). Weaving (Bua-Kota) was an essential skill for every Assamese woman, and those who lacked this skill were derisively called “Thupori”. The Ahom Swargadeos patronized this industry, popularizing the use of fine cloths like Paat-Mejankari and Kingkhap.
- Bamboo and Cane Craft: Given the abundance of bamboo and cane in Assam’s forests, this was a widespread craft. People made everything from houses, fences, and bridges (Dolong) to household items like trays (Dala), sieves (Salani), baskets (Pachi, Khorahee), fishing implements (Jakoi, Chepa), and agricultural tools. The knowledge of this craft was passed down through generations.
- Gold and Silver Washing/Craft: The Sonowal and Roopowal khels (guilds) were engaged in washing sand from rivers like the Brahmaputra, Subansiri, and Dikrong to collect gold and silver dust. This was a significant source of revenue for the Ahom royal exchequer. Goldsmiths (Sonari) were skilled in making various traditional ornaments like Keru, Dugdugi, and Junbiri, as well as royal items like golden umbrellas and thrones (Hengdang).
- Iron Smelting and Bell-metal/Brass Industries: The Tirowal or Loo-Soleea khel was engaged in smelting iron from iron-rich soil (Loa-maati). The bell-metal and brass industries flourished in places like Sarthebari and Hajo. Craftsmen known as Kohars and Moreeas produced various utensils like dishes (Kanhee), pots (Luta, Kolah), and trays (Horai).
- Other Crafts: The chapter also covers pottery (by Kumar and Heera guilds), brick-making (Itahojeea guild), preparation of writing materials like Sachipaat (from the Sachi tree) and Mohee (ink), boat building, salt production, and ivory craft.
Complete Textual Question and Answer
1. (a) In which epic, Assam is called “the land of rearing silk worm”?
Answer: In the epic Ramayana, Assam is called “the land of rearing silk worm.”
(b) What is “Thupori”?
Answer: “Thupori” was a derogatory word used in Assamese society during the Ahom age to refer to a girl who did not have the knowledge of spinning and weaving.
(c) To which profession was the guild called “Jola” engaged during the Ahom rule ?
Answer: The guild called “Jola” (along with “Tanti”) was a professional guild directly involved in the profession of spinning and weaving for their livelihood.
(d) What was the name of the cloth which was prepared by spinning and weaving within a night by the wife and given to her husband setting out for battle during the Ahom age?
Answer: The name of this special armour cloth was ‘Kobach-Kapor’.
(e) What is ‘Hun Khopa’?
Answer: ‘Hun Khopa’ (or ‘Hun Komowa’) was the method of producing or washing gold from river sand, practiced by the Sonowal Paiks.
(f) What is ‘Gunakoteea’?
Answer: ‘Gunakoteea’ was a professional guild created by the Ahom Swargadeos. They imported persons skilled in making floral designs with golden thread (guna) and settled them in Assam under this guild.
(g) What is ‘Loa -mati’?
Answer: ‘Loa-maati’ was the name for the soil mixed with iron ore that was abraded from the hills by strong river currents during the rainy season. The Loo-Soleea (iron maker) paiks would dig out this soil to smelt iron.
(h) What is ‘Dhekor’?
Answer: ‘Dhekor’ refers to the two iron bars that adjoined the upper and lower ends of an Assamese palanquin. There was a special guild of blacksmiths called the ‘Dhekor gorha komar khel’ dedicated to manufacturing these.
(i) What is ‘Khatang’?
Answer: ‘Khatang’ was a ring-like contrivance made of cane that was used for tying together the forelegs of an elephant.
2. Write short note
(i) Bell-metal industry: The bell-metal industry was a significant craft in medieval Assam, with places like Sarthebari and Koronga becoming famous for it. Craftsmen mixed copper and tin (and sometimes silver) to create the alloy. Using tools like hammers (Haturi), anvils (Niyari), and tongs (Horah), they produced various utensils mainly for eating, such as dishes (Kanhee), bowls (Bati), and pots (Tou, Kolah).
(ii) Copper industry: The copper industry was one of the oldest in Assam. Various materials, including copper plates used by ancient kings, were made from it. It is known that the roof of the Tamreswari temple in Sadiya was made of copper. Craftsmen from guilds like Kohar and Komar made items like Kalashi, Horai, and articles for worship. They were also skilled in enameling and covering copper items with gold and silver sheets.
(iii) Brass industry: The brass industry was important during the Ahom rule, developed by craftsmen of the Moreea Khel. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, was used to make numerous items for daily and religious use, such as water pots (Choria, Luta), trays (Horai), and even the large drum (Doba) used in Namghars.
(iv) Lac producing craft: The production of lac was an important industry in ancient Assam. Lac was cultivated by rearing the ‘La-porua’ (lac insect) on certain trees. It was used to make colours durable and, importantly, to emboss the seal on royal documents and records. It was also used to prepare moulds for making metal utensils. A specific guild called ‘La-shungi’ was engaged in producing lac.
(v) ‘Roh’ producing craft: During the Ahom age, a substance called ‘Roh’ was produced to purify the water of big and small tanks. It is known that ‘Roh’ was generally produced from the gum of the wood apple tree by adopting a particular method, under the supervision of an officer called ‘Rosendra Borua’.
3. Give a description of the spinning and weaving industry of medieval Assam.
Answer: The spinning and weaving industry was the most important and widespread cottage industry in medieval Assam. Every Assamese woman was expected to be an expert in ‘Bua-Kota’ (spinning and weaving). They produced three main types of silk: Paat (smooth and durable), Muga (the attractive golden silk), and Eri (rough and warm). Cotton was also cultivated and used. Women performed all tasks, from rearing the silkworms, feeding them leaves, collecting the cocoons, boiling them, and separating the threads using implements like Takuri and Letai. Weaving was done on handlooms (Taat) made of bamboo or wood. The industry was patronized by Ahom kings and was mandatory for every woman, making ancient Assam self-sufficient in cloth production.
4. Describe the method of gold washing in medieval Assam.
Answer: In medieval Assam, gold was washed from river sand by a guild called the Sonowals. When they found gold dust in the sandbanks, they would first build a bund (Bheta) to divert the river’s flow over the sand, washing away the top layer. They then collected the gold-bearing sand using a wooden implement called a ‘Leheti’. This sand was then washed in a wooden trough called a ‘Durunee’. Water was poured over the sand, and it was stirred until the lighter sand particles washed away, leaving the heavier gold dust behind on a Koupat leaf. This gold dust was then mixed with mercury (Para) to form a lump, which was heated on charcoal. The mercury would evaporate, leaving behind pure gold.
5. Give a description of silver craft prevalent in ancient Assam.
Answer: Silver craft was also prevalent in ancient Assam. The method of washing silver (Roop Komowa) from the sand of rivers like the Dhansiri and Doigrung was almost the same as gold washing. The guild engaged in this was the Ropowal or Thengal Khel. Besides being produced locally, silver was also imported from the territory of Borkhamti and through the Singphos from China. Assamese craftsmen made various ornaments, utensils, and idols from silver. The Ahom and Koch kings also minted silver coins, such as the ‘Narayani Mohar’.
6. Write briefly about the iron smelting craft in ancient Assam.
Answer: The iron smelting craft was a major industry in medieval Assam, practiced by the ‘Tirowal’ or ‘Loo-Soleea’ Khel (guild). They collected iron-rich soil (Loa-maati) from river sandbanks. This soil was separated from other impurities by trampling it in a pit with water. The iron-mixed soil was then put in a furnace (Jaali gaat) and burnt using firewood and bellows (Bhaati). The molten iron ore would separate from the waste foams. This soft lump of iron was then pounded with a hammer (Dhurmus) to remove remaining impurities and shaped into various tools. Steel was also manufactured by burning the pure iron with charcoal from hard timbers like Nahar.
7. What do you know about the pottery in Ancient Assam?
Answer: Pottery is a very old industry in Assam, with evidence found in excavations at Guwahati, Nagaon, and Tezpur. In ancient Assam, the professional potters were called Kumbhokars. During the Ahom age, the craft was developed under royal patronage, and guilds like the Kumar, Heera, and Khonikor were engaged in it. The Kumar artisans used a potter’s wheel (Chaak), while the Heera artisans did not. They used ‘Potter’s clay’ (Kumar mati or Heera mati) to shape various vessels like pots (Ghot, Tekeli), cups (Mola), and cooking pots (Choru). The vessels were dried, fired in a kiln (Paagsali), and sometimes decorated with floral designs using a colourful soil called ‘Rangon Maati’.
8. Give a description of the crafts and industries in ancient Assam with the help of your textbook.
Answer: The crafts and industries in ancient Assam were mainly cottage industries based on traditional skills, making the society largely self-sufficient. The most prominent industry was spinning and weaving, where women produced three types of silk (Paat, Muga, Eri) and cotton cloth on handlooms. Bamboo and cane craft was another essential industry, used for making houses, furniture, baskets, and agricultural tools.
Other important industries included gold and silver washing, where Sonowal and Ropowal guilds collected precious metals from river sand. The iron smelting craft, practiced by the Loo-Soleea Khel, produced iron for tools and weapons. The bell-metal and brass industries flourished in places like Sarthebari, producing various household utensils. Pottery, brick-making, boat building, ivory craft, and the preparation of Sachipaat (writing material) and Mohee (ink) were other significant crafts that thrived in the Pre-British Age.
